CBD for Dogs: The Complete Evidence-Based Guide (2026)

Introduction

The question isn't whether pet owners are turning to CBD — they already have, by the millions. The question is whether the products they're buying are formulated correctly, dosed appropriately, and backed by research that actually applies to dogs rather than humans. Most of what's published online about CBD for dogs is either borrowed from human studies, extrapolated from rodent models, or written by people with a financial interest in the answer. This guide is different.

What follows is built on the American Veterinary Medical Association's 2025 Cannabis Resource Guide and the 223 peer-reviewed studies it cites — randomized controlled trials, pharmacokinetic studies, long-term safety data, and clinical investigations conducted specifically in dogs. Where the research is strong, we'll say so with the specificity that strength deserves. Where it's limited, mixed, or actively contradicted by other studies, we'll say that too. The goal is an accurate picture of what CBD can and cannot do for your dog, so you can make a genuinely informed decision rather than a hopeful one shaped by marketing copy.

The canine CBD literature has matured considerably since the first randomized controlled trial was published by Cornell University in 2018. We now have 9-month safety studies, pharmacokinetic data across multiple delivery routes, clinical trials for arthritis, epilepsy, anxiety, and atopic dermatitis, and a sobering product variability study that should change how every pet owner evaluates what they're buying. We have enough data to make evidence-based recommendations — and enough intellectual honesty to acknowledge where the evidence runs out. That combination is rarer than it should be in this space, and it's the standard this guide holds itself to.

One thing worth establishing at the outset: dogs are not small humans, and they are not large cats. Their endocannabinoid system has species-specific features — particularly in the cerebellum — that make them respond to cannabinoids differently than any other species studied. Understanding those differences is not a footnote to the CBD conversation for dogs. It is the conversation. Everything that follows builds on that foundation.

What is CBD?

Cannabis, Hemp, and Marijuana: The Legal Distinction That Determines Everything

CBD — cannabidiol — is one of over 90 naturally occurring cannabinoids found in cannabis plants.[18] But the word "cannabis" covers a legal and chemical spectrum that matters enormously when you're choosing a product for your dog, because the regulatory framework governing what you can legally buy, and the safety profile of what you're actually giving your animal, both hinge on a single number: 0.3% THC. The 2018 Farm Bill drew that line with federal authority — cannabis containing 0.3% THC or less is classified as hemp and is federally legal; cannabis above that threshold is marijuana, a Schedule I controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act.[2][3] Every legal CBD product for pets is derived from hemp. And as you'll learn in the sections that follow, even the trace THC permitted in hemp products warrants careful, specific attention when it comes to dogs — because dogs are not built like us.

The history of cannabis as medicine stretches back thousands of years — archaeological evidence of medicinal cannabis use dates to at least 3,000 BCE[6] — but the modern regulatory story is considerably shorter and considerably more complicated. The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 effectively criminalized cannabis in the United States.[12] The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 cemented that status at the federal level.[3] It wasn't until the 2018 Farm Bill that hemp was removed from the Schedule I list and CBD derived from hemp became federally legal — a regulatory shift that opened the door to the commercial CBD market that now generates billions of dollars annually, with quality standards that remain, to put it charitably, inconsistent.

CBD vs THC: Why the Difference Is Critical for Dogs Specifically

CBD and THC are both cannabinoids derived from the same plant, and they interact with the same receptor system — but they do so through fundamentally different mechanisms, with fundamentally different consequences, and the difference matters far more in dogs than in any other species commonly kept as pets. THC is a direct agonist at CB1 and CB2 receptors — it binds and activates them, producing its psychoactive and physiological effects through that direct stimulation.[36] CBD, by contrast, works indirectly — it modulates receptor activity, inhibits the breakdown of endogenous cannabinoids, and interacts with non-cannabinoid receptor systems, producing therapeutic effects without the direct receptor activation that causes intoxication.[60] This distinction is not merely pharmacological trivia. It is the reason CBD does not cause tolerance the way THC does, the reason CBD does not produce the motor dysfunction that THC causes in dogs, and the reason CBD can be used safely long-term while THC cannot.

The tolerance question deserves particular attention because it has direct implications for long-term use. THC causes rapid tolerance in dogs — CB1 receptor downregulation occurs within 3-8 days of repeated exposure, meaning the same dose produces progressively less effect and physical dependence develops.[37] CBD, working through allosteric sites rather than direct receptor activation, does not trigger this downregulation. Nine-month clinical studies confirm that dogs receiving CBD twice daily show no evidence of tolerance development — the same dose produces the same effect at month nine as it did at week one.[96] For a chronic condition like arthritis or epilepsy, this is not a minor advantage. It is the difference between a sustainable long-term management strategy and a treatment that requires constant dose escalation.

Types of CBD Products: Full-Spectrum, Isolate, and Broad-Spectrum

Not all CBD products are created equal — and the differences between product types have direct implications for both efficacy and safety in dogs. The distinction comes down to what else is in the product alongside CBD, and whether those additional compounds enhance the therapeutic effect, introduce risk, or both. The concept of the entourage effect — the synergistic interaction between CBD, other cannabinoids, and terpenes that makes whole-plant extracts more effective than isolated CBD alone — was first described by Russo in 2011[22] and has since been supported by multiple lines of evidence, including the Garcia et al 2023 seizure study that showed CBD+CBDA combination outperforming CBD alone.[113] The practical question for dog owners is how to capture the entourage effect without introducing THC risk.

The Regulatory Landscape: What FDA Approval Does and Does Not Mean

CBD products for pets occupy an unusual regulatory space that every informed buyer should understand. The FDA has approved exactly one CBD-based drug: Epidiolex, a pharmaceutical-grade cannabidiol approved for two rare forms of human epilepsy.[25] No CBD product for pets has received FDA approval, and the FDA has explicitly stated that existing regulatory frameworks for foods and dietary supplements are not appropriate for CBD.[163] This does not mean CBD products are illegal — hemp-derived CBD is federally legal under the 2018 Farm Bill — but it does mean they are not subject to the pre-market safety and efficacy review that pharmaceutical drugs undergo. The practical implication is that the quality, potency, and safety of commercial CBD products varies enormously, and the burden of verification falls on the buyer. The product variability study we'll examine in the Quality section makes this point with data that is difficult to ignore.

Several states have moved to clarify the veterinary landscape specifically. California, Nevada, and several other states have enacted legislation explicitly authorizing veterinarians to discuss cannabis with clients within the veterinarian-client-patient relationship.[168][169][170] This is a meaningful development — it means your veterinarian in those states can have an informed, open conversation about CBD without professional risk, which is the conversation that should precede any therapeutic use. If you're in a state where that conversation is still legally complicated, the AVMA's 2025 Cannabis Resource Guide provides the framework your veterinarian needs to engage with the evidence.

How CBD Works in Dogs

The Endocannabinoid System: Your Dog's Built-In Cannabis Receptor Network

Before CBD can make sense as a therapeutic agent, the system it acts on has to make sense — and the endocannabinoid system (ECS) is one of the most important biological systems most pet owners have never heard of. Discovered in the early 1990s through research into how THC produces its effects, the ECS turned out to be far more fundamental than anyone anticipated.[30] It is not a system that exists because cannabis exists. Cannabis works because the ECS exists — and it exists in every vertebrate species studied, including dogs, cats, horses, and humans, with species-specific variations that have direct clinical implications.[31][32]

The ECS is a complex network of receptors, endogenous ligands, and metabolic enzymes distributed throughout virtually every organ system in the body. Its primary receptors — CB1 and CB2 — are expressed in the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nervous system, immune system, skin, gut, liver, kidneys, reproductive organs, and cardiovascular system.[33][34] The endogenous ligands — anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) — are produced on demand by the body and degraded rapidly after use, functioning as retrograde neurotransmitters that modulate signaling across synapses.[41][42] The ECS regulates pain perception, inflammation response, mood and anxiety, sleep-wake cycles, appetite and metabolism, immune function, memory and learning, and motor control — a scope of influence that explains why cannabinoids produce such a broad range of physiological effects.[43][44][45]

Understanding the ECS also explains something that confuses many pet owners: why CBD seems to help with such different conditions. It is not because CBD is a miracle compound that does everything. It is because the ECS is involved in regulating everything, and CBD modulates the ECS in ways that restore balance to systems that have been dysregulated by disease, inflammation, or chronic stress. The therapeutic effects are downstream consequences of ECS modulation — not direct pharmacological actions on the conditions themselves. This distinction matters for setting realistic expectations about what CBD can and cannot do.

CB1 and CB2 Receptors: Different Locations, Different Functions, Different Risks

CB1 and CB2 receptors are both part of the endocannabinoid system, but they are expressed in different tissues, activated by different stimuli, and produce different physiological effects when engaged. Understanding the distinction is not academic — it directly explains why CBD is safe for dogs while THC is not, and why topical CBD products can produce localized anti-inflammatory effects without systemic consequences.

The Cerebellar Connection: The Most Important Thing You'll Read About Dogs and Cannabis

The single most important species-specific fact about dogs and cannabinoids is this: dogs have a uniquely high concentration of CB1 receptors in the cerebellum compared to humans, cats, and most other species studied.[75] The cerebellum is the brain region responsible for motor coordination, balance, and fine motor control. When THC activates CB1 receptors in the cerebellum, it disrupts the precise neural signaling that allows an animal to stand, walk, and maintain posture. In humans, this produces mild coordination impairment — the familiar "stoned" clumsiness. In dogs, with their far higher cerebellar CB1 density, the same mechanism produces something categorically different: severe static ataxia, in which the dog cannot stand or walk at all, often accompanied by a characteristic wide-based stance and profound disorientation that persists for 24-96 hours.[81][82]

This is not a dose-dependent effect in the way most drug toxicities are. Dogs can experience significant ataxia from THC exposures that would be entirely sub-clinical in a human of equivalent body weight. The Martin et al 1976 study — one of the earliest systematic investigations of cannabinoid receptor distribution in dogs — documented this unique cerebellar sensitivity and established the pharmacological basis for what veterinary emergency medicine now sees routinely.[72] More recent work by Freundt-Revilla et al confirmed the spatial distribution of CB1 receptors throughout the canine central and peripheral nervous system, providing the neuroanatomical map that explains the clinical presentation.[75]

CBD does not produce this effect — and the reason is mechanistic, not merely empirical. CBD does not directly activate CB1 receptors. It acts as a weak negative allosteric modulator at CB1 — meaning it binds to a site on the receptor that is separate from the THC binding site and modulates receptor activity without triggering the full agonist response that THC produces.[60][61] This is why CBD can be given to dogs safely at therapeutic doses without producing ataxia, while even small amounts of THC can produce severe motor dysfunction. The cerebellar connection is also why the THC content of any CBD product given to dogs is not a regulatory technicality — it is a direct patient safety consideration that should be verified on a batch-specific Certificate of Analysis, not assumed from a label claim.

How CBD Interacts with the ECS: Four Distinct Mechanisms

CBD's therapeutic profile is broad precisely because it engages the endocannabinoid system through multiple mechanisms simultaneously, rather than through the single direct receptor activation that characterizes THC. This multi-target pharmacology is both the reason CBD produces effects across such a wide range of conditions and the reason it does so without the tolerance, dependence, and toxicity associated with direct receptor agonists. Understanding these mechanisms also explains why CBD takes time to produce its full therapeutic effect — the downstream consequences of ECS modulation accumulate over days and weeks, not hours.

Bioavailability: Why How You Give CBD Matters as Much as How Much You Give

CBD's therapeutic effect depends not just on the dose administered but on how much of that dose actually reaches systemic circulation — a property called bioavailability. In dogs, oral bioavailability of CBD is relatively low compared to intravenous administration, but it is dramatically improved by co-administration with food. The Deabold et al 2019 pharmacokinetic study — one of the foundational studies in canine CBD research — established that CBD absorption in dogs increases approximately 3-fold when given with food compared to fasted administration.[91] The mechanism is fat-enhanced absorption through the lymphatic system, which bypasses first-pass hepatic metabolism and delivers CBD directly to systemic circulation. Without food, approximately two-thirds of every dose is metabolized before it reaches the bloodstream. This is not a minor consideration — it is the difference between a therapeutic dose and a sub-therapeutic one that produces no measurable benefit.

The formulation of the CBD product also affects bioavailability. Wakshlag et al 2020 compared three oral forms of hemp extract in dogs and found meaningful differences in the pharmacokinetic profiles of CBD, CBDA, THC, and THCA across formulations.[93] MCT oil carriers — the format used in VetsGrade tinctures — consistently produce higher and more consistent bioavailability than other carrier oils, because medium-chain triglycerides are absorbed directly through the portal system and enhance lymphatic uptake of lipophilic compounds like CBD. The half-life of CBD in dogs is approximately 7-9 hours,[92] which is why twice-daily dosing is recommended for therapeutic use — once-daily dosing produces trough blood levels that may fall below the therapeutic threshold for significant portions of the day.

What Research Shows: Clinical Studies

The following studies represent the most rigorous research on CBD for dogs — randomized controlled trials, crossover studies, and peer-reviewed clinical investigations published in veterinary journals. Where studies have limitations, those limitations are stated plainly. The goal is an accurate picture of what the evidence actually supports, not a curated selection of favorable findings.

CBD for Arthritis & Joint Pain

Osteoarthritis is the most prevalent chronic pain condition in dogs, affecting approximately 20% of dogs over one year of age and up to 80% of dogs over eight years.[99] Traditional NSAID treatment is effective but carries well-documented long-term risks to the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, and liver — risks that compound with duration of use and make long-term pain management a genuine clinical challenge. The arthritis research on CBD is the strongest body of evidence in the canine CBD literature, with two well-designed studies producing clinically meaningful results that have held up to scrutiny and replication.

What makes the arthritis data particularly compelling is not just the response rate — though 94% is exceptional by any standard — but the consistency of the findings across different study designs, different dosing protocols, and different outcome measures. The Cornell study used validated pain assessment instruments and veterinarian-blinded evaluation. The Kogan study used a real-world dose escalation protocol that more closely mirrors clinical practice. Both arrived at the same conclusion: CBD significantly reduces pain and improves function in arthritic dogs at doses of 1-2 mg/kg twice daily. When two studies with different methodologies converge on the same finding, that convergence is meaningful.

CBD for Seizures & Epilepsy

Epilepsy affects 0.5-5% of dogs, making it the most common neurological disorder in the species.[44] When seizures are not controlled by traditional antiepileptic medications — a condition called refractory epilepsy — the options are limited, the quality of life impact is severe, and the medications that do exist carry significant side effect burdens of their own. CBD has been studied as adjunct therapy in this population, with results that are clinically meaningful but require careful interpretation — particularly regarding what "adjunct" means and why it matters.

The seizure data is the most nuanced in the canine CBD literature, and intellectual honesty requires acknowledging that nuance rather than leading with the headline number. The responder rates — 22% in the McGrath 2019 study, 43% in the Garcia 2023 study — are meaningful, but they also mean that 57-78% of dogs in these trials did not achieve the 50% seizure reduction threshold that defines a clinical response. CBD is not a cure for epilepsy. It is an adjunct that produces meaningful benefit in a substantial minority of dogs with refractory seizures — and for those dogs, the benefit is real, significant, and achieved without the sedation and cognitive dulling associated with most antiepileptic drugs.

CBD for Anxiety & Stress

Approximately 70% of dogs experience some form of anxiety, making it the most common behavioral complaint in veterinary practice.[116] The research on CBD for canine anxiety is more nuanced than the arthritis data — and being honest about that nuance is more useful than overstating the evidence. The short version: CBD works well for situational anxiety, with objective biomarker evidence to support that claim. For chronic behavioral anxiety, the evidence is mixed, and four studies have found no statistically significant difference between CBD and placebo. Understanding why that distinction exists — and what it means for treatment decisions — requires engaging with the pharmacology rather than just the headlines.

Additional anxiety research has produced a more complex picture. Masataka 2024 found that CBD reduced vocalization in dogs separated from their caregivers.[121] Marliani et al 2024 found positive effects on canine behavior and cortisol levels with CBD supplementation.[118] Morris et al 2020 found that CBD-containing treats reduced noise-induced fear responses.[119] These findings collectively support CBD's utility for situational and acute anxiety states. The picture changes for chronic behavioral conditions: four studies examining CBD for chronic anxiety, aggression, and complex behavioral disorders found no statistically significant difference from placebo.[116][117] This is not a failure of CBD — it is a reflection of the pharmacological reality that chronic behavioral disorders involve neurobiological complexity that a single supplement cannot address alone.

The mechanistic explanation for this pattern is consistent with what we know about CBD's pharmacology. CBD's anxiolytic effects are mediated primarily through 5-HT1A serotonin receptor agonism — a mechanism that is well-suited to acute stress responses, where a single dose can modulate the serotonergic signaling that drives the anxiety response. Chronic behavioral disorders, by contrast, involve structural and functional changes in neural circuits that develop over months or years and require comprehensive behavioral intervention — desensitization, counter-conditioning, environmental modification — alongside any pharmacological support. CBD can be a useful component of that comprehensive approach, but the evidence does not support it as a standalone solution for severe or complex cases.

CBD for Atopic Dermatitis & Skin Allergies

Atopic dermatitis is one of the most common and most frustrating chronic conditions in dogs — a genetically predisposed inflammatory skin disease driven by immune dysregulation, barrier dysfunction, and environmental allergen sensitization. The itch-scratch cycle it produces is self-perpetuating: scratching damages the skin barrier, which increases allergen penetration, which amplifies the immune response, which intensifies the itch. Traditional management involves immunosuppressants, biologics, and allergen-specific immunotherapy — effective but expensive, and not without side effects. The CB2 receptor expression in canine skin keratinocytes[77] provides a mechanistic rationale for topical and systemic CBD in atopic dermatitis, and two clinical studies have begun to test that rationale.

Loewinger et al 2022 evaluated a mixed CBD+CBDA oil in client-owned dogs with atopic dermatitis and found significant reductions in owner-assessed itch scores and skin lesion severity.[122] Mogi et al 2022 conducted a retrospective assessment of eight dogs with atopic dermatitis treated with CBD without THC and reported improvement in clinical signs in the majority of cases.[123] These are smaller studies with methodological limitations — neither was a randomized controlled trial — but they are consistent with the mechanistic evidence and with the clinical experience of veterinary dermatologists who have incorporated CBD into multimodal atopic dermatitis management. The evidence is promising rather than definitive, and larger controlled trials are needed. What can be said with confidence is that the biological rationale is sound, the preliminary clinical data is positive, and the safety profile of CBD makes it a low-risk addition to existing atopic dermatitis management protocols.

Evidence-Based Dosing for Dogs

The dosing recommendations that follow are derived directly from the clinical studies reviewed in the previous section — not from manufacturer recommendations, not from human dosing extrapolations, and not from anecdotal reports. They represent the doses that produced measurable clinical benefit in peer-reviewed trials, adjusted for the pharmacokinetic realities of canine CBD metabolism.

One of the most important findings in the canine CBD dosing literature is that more is not better — and in at least one study, more was actively worse. A dose-escalation study found that dogs receiving 9 mg/kg showed inferior outcomes compared to dogs receiving 2-4 mg/kg, suggesting a therapeutic window above which additional CBD produces diminishing returns or counterproductive effects.[88] This is consistent with the known pharmacology of CBD at high doses — at concentrations well above the therapeutic range, CBD begins to interact with additional receptor systems in ways that may counteract its primary therapeutic mechanisms. The practical implication is straightforward: start at the lower end of the evidence-based range, titrate slowly, and resist the intuition that a higher dose will produce a faster or better result.

Individual variation is real and clinically significant. The Kogan 2020 study found that most dogs required 1-2 mg/kg to achieve adequate pain control, but some responded at the lower end of that range while others needed the upper end.[102] Factors that influence individual response include body composition (CBD is lipophilic and distributes into fat tissue), concurrent medications that affect CYP450 metabolism, the specific condition being treated, and the quality and bioavailability of the product being used. The plasma CBD concentration finding from McGrath 2019 — that higher blood levels correlated with better seizure control — underscores that the dose on the label is only as meaningful as the bioavailability of the product delivering it.[112]

Four Principles That Govern All CBD Dosing in Dogs

Evidence-Based Dosing by Condition

Safety & Side Effects

CBD's safety profile in dogs is one of the most reassuring aspects of the research — and one of the most frequently misrepresented. The honest picture is this: CBD is exceptionally well-tolerated at therapeutic doses, with a safety margin that compares favorably to virtually every pharmaceutical used in veterinary medicine. The consistent finding of ALP elevation across studies is real, warrants monitoring, and has not been associated with clinical liver disease in any study to date. Those two facts need to be held together, not separated.

The safety data for CBD in dogs now spans multiple studies, multiple dose levels, and durations up to nine months — a body of evidence that is more extensive than most people realize and more reassuring than most CBD marketing acknowledges. The FDA pre-approval studies for Epidiolex — the pharmaceutical-grade CBD approved for human epilepsy — included dog safety studies that found no adverse effects at doses up to 100 mg/kg/day.[95] That is 35-70 times higher than the therapeutic doses used in clinical practice (1-2.9 mg/kg). The safety margin is not merely adequate — it is exceptional by pharmaceutical standards, comparable to the safety margins of vitamins and far exceeding those of NSAIDs, corticosteroids, or antiepileptic drugs.

Long-Term Safety Studies: What the Data Actually Shows

Known Side Effects: What to Monitor and What It Means

The side effect profile of CBD in dogs is consistent across studies and well-characterized. ALP (alkaline phosphatase) elevation is the most frequently reported finding — observed in multiple studies at therapeutic doses, dose-dependent in magnitude, and fully reversible upon discontinuation.[89][90] The clinical significance of this finding has been debated in the veterinary literature. What can be said with confidence is that no study has documented progression from ALP elevation to clinical hepatic disease in dogs receiving CBD at therapeutic doses, and the Corsato Alvarenga 2024 nine-month study found no changes in other hepatic parameters alongside the ALP elevation. The practical recommendation is straightforward: baseline liver panel before starting CBD, recheck at 3 months, and continue monitoring every 3-6 months for dogs on long-term therapy. If ALP elevation is accompanied by clinical signs of liver disease — lethargy, jaundice, vomiting, weight loss — discontinue and consult your veterinarian immediately.

Soft stool and mild diarrhea are reported at higher doses and are dose-dependent — reducing the dose typically resolves the issue without requiring discontinuation. Mild sedation is occasionally reported, particularly at the higher end of the therapeutic range, and is more common when CBD is combined with other sedating medications. Jost et al 2024 evaluated the effect of long-term oral CBD on tear production, intraocular pressure, and tear concentrations in dogs and found no clinically significant changes — an important finding for dogs with pre-existing ocular conditions.[98] The Mills et al 2024 study of twice-daily CBD+CBDA at 2 and 4 mg/kg in a closed colony of dogs found both doses well-tolerated with no significant adverse events.[99]

CBD vs Other Treatments

Comparing CBD to conventional veterinary treatments requires intellectual honesty in both directions — acknowledging where CBD performs comparably or better, and acknowledging where conventional treatments have advantages that CBD cannot match. The goal is not to position CBD as a replacement for veterinary medicine. It is to give pet owners an accurate picture of where CBD fits in the therapeutic landscape.

CBD vs NSAIDs: The Arthritis Management Comparison

NSAIDs — carprofen (Rimadyl), meloxicam (Metacam), deracoxib (Deramaxx), firocoxib (Previcox) — are the standard of care for canine osteoarthritis pain, and they are effective. The comparison with CBD is not a question of which works better in isolation — it is a question of which combination of approaches produces the best long-term outcome with the most favorable risk profile. The Gamble 2018 study established that CBD can be safely combined with NSAIDs without pharmacokinetic interaction, and the Kogan 2020 study demonstrated that adding CBD to existing pain management protocols allowed 91% of dogs on gabapentin to reduce or eliminate it. The clinical picture that emerges is not CBD versus NSAIDs — it is CBD plus NSAIDs, with the possibility of NSAID dose reduction over time as CBD's anti-inflammatory effects accumulate.

The Gabapentin Reduction Finding: Why It Matters More Than It Sounds

The gabapentin finding from the Kogan 2020 study deserves more attention than it typically receives, because it represents something genuinely unusual in veterinary pain management: a supplement that allows meaningful reduction of a pharmaceutical with significant quality-of-life consequences. Gabapentin is widely used for chronic pain in dogs, and it is effective — but the sedation it produces is not a minor side effect. Dogs on gabapentin are often described by their owners as "not themselves" — less engaged, less responsive, less present. The sedation is accepted as the price of pain control. When 43% of dogs in the Kogan study were able to discontinue gabapentin entirely after adding CBD, and 48% were able to reduce their dose by 62%, the owners described their dogs as more alert, more interactive, and more engaged — with equivalent or better pain control.[102] That is not a pharmacological footnote. For the millions of dogs on gabapentin for chronic pain, it is a meaningful quality-of-life finding that should be part of every conversation about CBD and pain management.

The NSAID comparison tells a similar story from a different angle. NSAIDs are effective, but their long-term use in dogs with chronic arthritis — which is by definition a long-term condition — carries cumulative risk to the GI tract, kidneys, and liver that increases with duration of use. The ability to maintain equivalent pain control at a lower NSAID dose by adding CBD is not just a cost consideration. It is a risk reduction strategy that the clinical evidence supports. The Talsma et al 2024 study specifically evaluated CBD with and without NSAIDs in dogs with mobility disorders and found that the combination produced outcomes superior to either alone — the most direct evidence yet for the complementary rather than competitive relationship between CBD and conventional pain management.[107]

How to Give CBD to Your Dog

The difference between a therapeutic dose and a sub-therapeutic one is often not the amount on the label — it is whether that amount was given with food. This single variable, more than any other in CBD administration, determines whether the dose your dog receives is the dose that produced results in clinical studies or a fraction of it.

The Food Requirement: Why It Is Non-Negotiable

The pharmacokinetic data on CBD bioavailability in dogs is unambiguous. Deabold et al 2019 established that CBD absorption increases approximately 3-fold when given with food compared to fasted administration.[91] The mechanism is fat-enhanced lymphatic absorption: dietary fat — particularly medium-chain and long-chain triglycerides — facilitates the uptake of lipophilic compounds like CBD through the intestinal lymphatic system, bypassing first-pass hepatic metabolism and delivering CBD directly to systemic circulation. Without food, the majority of each dose is metabolized by the liver before it reaches the bloodstream. The practical consequence is stark: a dog given 2 mg/kg of CBD without food may be receiving the effective equivalent of less than 0.7 mg/kg — below the therapeutic threshold established in every clinical study that demonstrated meaningful benefit.

The fat content of the meal matters as well. High-fat meals produce greater enhancement of CBD absorption than low-fat meals, because more dietary fat means more lymphatic transport capacity for lipophilic compounds. This does not mean every CBD dose requires a high-fat meal — the 3-fold absorption enhancement has been documented with standard feeding — but it does mean that giving CBD with a high-fat treat like peanut butter, cheese, or a small amount of coconut oil is not just a palatability strategy. It is a bioavailability optimization. The Wakshlag et al 2020 pharmacokinetic study confirmed that MCT oil carriers — the format used in VetsGrade tinctures — produce higher and more consistent bioavailability than other carrier oils, because MCTs are absorbed directly through the portal system and enhance lymphatic uptake of co-administered lipophilic compounds.[93] The half-life of CBD in dogs is approximately 7-9 hours,[92] which is why twice-daily dosing at mealtimes is the protocol that every successful clinical study used — it maintains therapeutic blood levels throughout the day without the trough periods that once-daily dosing produces.

Consistency of timing matters beyond just the food co-administration requirement. Giving CBD at the same times each day — with breakfast and dinner, for example — produces more stable blood level curves than variable timing, because the absorption enhancement from food is most pronounced when the meal and the CBD are given simultaneously rather than sequentially. The practical recommendation is simple: mix the tincture directly into the food bowl at mealtime, every time, without exception. This is not a complicated protocol. It is the one that the clinical studies used, and it is the one that produces the blood levels those studies measured.

What to Expect: The CBD Timeline in Dogs

One of the most common reasons pet owners conclude that CBD is not working is that they evaluate the response before the pharmacological foundation has been established. CBD requires 5-7 days of twice-daily dosing to reach steady-state blood levels — the point at which the concentration in the bloodstream has stabilized and the full therapeutic effect can begin to develop. For inflammatory conditions like arthritis and atopic dermatitis, the downstream consequences of ECS modulation — reduced cytokine production, decreased neuroinflammation, improved barrier function — accumulate over weeks, not days. The 69% pain reduction documented in the Kogan 2020 study was measured at week four, not week one.[102] Evaluating response at day three is like evaluating a physical therapy program after one session. The timeline is not a limitation of CBD. It is a pharmacological reality that should be communicated clearly before treatment begins, so that owners do not abandon an effective protocol before it has had adequate time to work.

Situational anxiety is the meaningful exception to this timeline. A single dose of 4 mg/kg given 30-60 minutes before an anxiety-provoking event — car travel, veterinary visit, fireworks, thunderstorm — produces measurable cortisol reduction and behavioral improvement within 1-2 hours, as documented by Flint et al 2024.[120] This acute effect operates through CBD's direct serotonergic mechanism — 5-HT1A receptor agonism — rather than through the slower ECS modulation pathway that underlies its anti-inflammatory and anticonvulsant effects. Understanding which mechanism is relevant to your dog's condition helps set appropriate expectations for the timeline of response.

Choosing Quality CBD: The Product Variability Crisis

The most important thing to understand about the commercial CBD market for pets is that the label is not the product. A study of 183 dogs receiving CBD products from more than 40 different brands found CBD blood concentrations ranging from non-detectable to greater than 1,000 ng/mL — with a median of only 13.7 ng/mL. Some products had no detectable CBD at all. This is not a fringe problem. It is the norm.

The George et al 2020 product variability study — presented at the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine Forum — is the most sobering piece of data in the entire canine CBD literature, and it is the one most conspicuously absent from CBD company marketing.[87] Researchers measured actual blood levels of CBD and THC in 183 dogs receiving commercial CBD products from more than 40 different brands. CBD concentrations ranged from non-detectable to greater than 1,000 ng/mL — a more than 1,000-fold range of variation across products that were all labeled as CBD supplements. The median blood level was 13.7 ng/mL — a concentration that falls below the therapeutic threshold established in clinical studies. THC concentrations ranged from non-detectable to 87.4 ng/mL, with some products labeled as CBD containing significant THC. The researchers' conclusion was damning: therapeutic drug monitoring of phytocannabinoids might be prudent in clinical patients — meaning blood testing may be necessary to verify that dogs are actually receiving CBD from commercial products.

This finding reframes the entire product selection conversation. It is not enough to find a CBD product with a reasonable price and a professional-looking label. The question is whether the product delivers consistent, verified, bioavailable CBD at the concentration stated on the label — and whether the THC content has been verified on a batch-specific basis, not just assumed from a label claim. The McGrath 2019 seizure study made this point from the clinical side: higher plasma CBD concentrations correlated directly with better seizure control.[112] A product that delivers inconsistent or sub-therapeutic CBD blood levels will produce inconsistent or absent clinical benefit, regardless of what the label says. Product quality is not a secondary consideration. It is a primary determinant of whether CBD works at all — and the George et al data suggests that for the majority of commercial products, the answer is that it does not work, because the CBD never reaches therapeutic blood levels.

The contamination findings are equally concerning. Hemp is a bioaccumulator — it absorbs heavy metals, pesticides, and other soil contaminants at concentrations that can exceed those in the surrounding environment.[130] Products that are not tested for heavy metals, pesticides, and microbials may contain contaminants that cause harm entirely independent of their CBD content. The FDA has issued recalls for CBD products containing elevated lead levels.[128] California has issued recalls for products contaminated with pesticides.[129] These are not hypothetical risks — they are documented events in the commercial CBD market that a comprehensive Certificate of Analysis would have caught before the products reached consumers.

What Quality Actually Requires: The Non-Negotiable Standards

The CBD industry has no pre-market approval requirement, no mandatory third-party testing, and no standardized labeling requirements for potency or purity. This regulatory vacuum means the quality standards that protect your dog are entirely self-imposed by the manufacturer — which is why those standards, and the verifiable evidence that a company actually meets them, matter more than any marketing claim. The following are not preferences or nice-to-haves. They are the minimum requirements for a CBD product that can be trusted to deliver what the clinical studies demonstrated.

VetsGrade Quality Standards: How We Meet the Bar the Research Sets

Drug Interactions

CBD is metabolized by the liver's cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzyme system — the same system responsible for metabolizing the majority of pharmaceutical drugs used in veterinary medicine.[66] This creates the potential for bidirectional pharmacokinetic interactions: CBD can inhibit certain CYP enzymes (CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19), increasing the blood levels of drugs metabolized by those enzymes and potentially causing side effects from drug accumulation; and it can induce other enzymes (CYP1A2, CYP2B6), decreasing the blood levels of drugs metabolized by those pathways and potentially reducing their effectiveness.[66] The clinical significance of these interactions varies by drug, dose, and individual patient — but the principle is consistent and non-negotiable: your veterinarian needs to know your dog is taking CBD before prescribing, adjusting, or discontinuing any medication.

The interaction data in dogs is less extensive than in humans, where Epidiolex's prescribing information documents interactions with clobazam, valproate, and other antiepileptic drugs based on clinical trial data.[85] The most directly relevant canine data comes from the McGrath 2019 seizure study, which found no change in phenobarbital blood levels when CBD was added at 2.5 mg/kg twice daily — an important safety confirmation for the most commonly used antiepileptic drug in dogs.[112] The Gamble 2018 arthritis study found no pharmacokinetic interaction between CBD and NSAIDs at 2 mg/kg twice daily.[101] These are reassuring findings, but they do not eliminate the need for monitoring — they establish that specific combinations are safe at the doses studied, not that all combinations at all doses are without risk.

Medications of Concern: Risk Stratification

Frequently Asked Questions

The questions below represent the most common points of confusion, concern, and genuine curiosity from pet owners navigating the CBD landscape for the first time — and from experienced users who want to understand the pharmacology behind what they're already doing. Every answer is grounded in the clinical literature reviewed in this guide. Where the evidence is strong, the answer reflects that strength. Where it is limited or mixed, the answer says so.

Making an Informed Decision

The research on CBD for dogs is more robust than most people realize and more limited than most CBD companies acknowledge. The honest picture sits between those two positions — and it is more useful than either extreme.

The clinical evidence supports CBD as a meaningful therapeutic option for canine osteoarthritis, refractory epilepsy as an adjunct to existing medications, situational anxiety, and atopic dermatitis. The arthritis data is the strongest — a 94% response rate and 69% pain reduction across two well-designed studies is exceptional by any standard in veterinary pain management, and the ability to reduce or eliminate gabapentin in 91% of dogs on that medication is one of the most practically important findings in the entire literature. The seizure data is meaningful — 43% of dogs with refractory epilepsy achieving greater than 50% seizure reduction when CBD+CBDA is added to existing medications represents a real benefit for a population with limited options. The anxiety data is condition-specific — strong for situational anxiety with objective biomarker support, mixed for chronic behavioral disorders. The safety data is reassuring — a 20-70x safety margin, nine-month safety confirmation, and a fully reversible side effect profile that compares favorably to every pharmaceutical alternative.

At the same time, CBD does not work for every dog or every condition. It requires patience — two to four weeks for most inflammatory conditions to show full benefit, and four to twelve weeks for seizure assessment. It requires quality products — the George et al variability study showing CBD blood concentrations from zero to over 1,000 ng/mL across commercial products is a sobering reminder that label claims are not guarantees, and that the product delivering the dose is as important as the dose itself. It requires veterinary partnership — particularly for dogs on medications where CYP450 interactions are a genuine clinical consideration, and for dogs with seizures where the adjunct-not-replacement principle is non-negotiable. And it requires honest expectations — the 94% arthritis response rate is real, and so is the 6% non-response rate.

What the evidence does not support is the reflexive skepticism that dismisses CBD as unproven, or the uncritical enthusiasm that positions it as a cure for everything. The truth is more interesting than either of those positions: CBD is a pharmacologically sophisticated compound that acts on a biological system present in every vertebrate species, through mechanisms that are increasingly well-understood, with clinical evidence that is growing in rigor and scope. It is not magic. It is not a replacement for veterinary medicine. It is a tool — one that, used correctly with quality products and appropriate veterinary oversight, can meaningfully improve the quality of life for dogs with chronic pain, refractory seizures, situational anxiety, and inflammatory skin disease.

Your Next Steps

References

This guide is based on the American Veterinary Medical Association 2025 Cannabis Resource Guide and the 223 peer-reviewed studies, regulatory documents, and clinical investigations cited therein. All references are presented in the order they appear in the AVMA source document. Superscript citations in the body of this guide link to their corresponding reference below.

1. Brutlag A, Hommerding H. Toxicology of marijuana synthetic cannabinoids, and cannabidiol in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2018;48:1087-1102.
2. Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 (2018 Farm Bill). Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/2/text
3. Controlled Substances Act of 1971, 21 U.S. Code Section 201 (2018).
4. Agricultural Marketing Services, USDA. Establishment of a domestic hemp production program. Fed Regist. 2019:84:58522.
5. Pacula RL, Smart R. Medical marijuana and marijuana legalization. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2017;13:397-419.
6. Zlas J, Stark H, Sellgman, et al. Early medical use of cannabis. Nature. 1993;363(6426):215.
7. Hand A, et al. History of medical cannabis. Cannabis: Med Aspects. 2016;9:387-394.
8. Burns TL, Ineck JR. Cannabinoid analgesia as a potential new therapeutic option in the treatment of chronic pain. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40(2):251-260.
9. Kreitzer FR, Stella N. The therapeutic potential of novel cannabinoid receptors. Pharmacol Ther. 2009;122(2):83-96.
10. Bridgeman MB, Abazia DT. Medicinal cannabis: history, pharmacology, and implications for the acute care setting. P T. 2017;42(3):180-188.
11. Drug Enforcement Agency. The early years. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2018-05/Early%20Years%20p%2012-29.pdf
12. Schaffer Library of Drug Policy. The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm
13. Pertwee RG. Cannabinoid pharmacology: the first 66 years. Br J Pharmacol. 2006;147(suppl 1):S163-171.
14. Legislative Counsel's Digest, California AB 223. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://legiscan.com/CA/text/AB223/id/2838619
15. Abrams DI. The therapeutic effects of Cannabis and cannabinoids: an update from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine report. Eur J Intern Med. 2018;49:7-11.
16. FDA. Inapplicability of the dietary supplement health and education act to animal products. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/1996/04/22/96-9780/inapplicability-of-the-dietary-supplement-health-and-education-act-to-animal-products
17. McPartland JM. Cannabis systematics at the levels of family, genus, and species. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2018;3(1):203-212.
18. Andre CM, Hausman JF, Guerriero G. Cannabis sativa: the plant of the thousand and one molecules. Front Plant Sci. 2016;7:19.
19. Izzo AA, Borrelli F, Capasso R, Di Marzo V, Mechoulam R. Non-psychotropic plant cannabinoids: new therapeutic opportunities from an ancient herb. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2009;30(10):515-527.
20. Hosking RD, Zajicek JP. Therapeutic potential of cannabis in pain medicine. Br J Anaesth. 2008;101(1):59-68.
21. Thomas BF, ElSohly MA. Chapter 2 — Biosynthesis and pharmacology of phytocannabinoids and related chemical constituents. In: Thomas BF, ElSohly MA, eds. The Analytical Chemistry of Cannabis. Elsevier; 2016:27-41.
22. Russo EB. Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects. Br J Pharmacol. 2011;163(7):1344-1364.
23. Deiana S. Potential medical uses of cannabigerol: a brief overview. In: Preedy VR, ed. Handbook of Cannabis and Related Pathologies: Biology, Pharmacology, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Elsevier; 2017:958-967.
24. Thomas BF, ElSohly MA. Chapter 1 — The botany of Cannabis sativa L. In: Thomas BF, ElSohly MA, eds. The Analytical Chemistry of Cannabis. Elsevier; 2016:1-26.
25. FDA. FDA approves first drug comprised of an active ingredient derived from marijuana to treat rare, severe forms of epilepsy. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-drug-comprised-active-ingredient-derived-marijuana-treat-rare-severe-forms
26. Pisanti S, Malfitano AM, Ciaglia E, et al. Cannabidiol: State of the art and new challenges for therapeutic applications. Pharmacol Ther. 2017;175:133-150.
27. De Luca MA, Fattore L. Therapeutic use of synthetic cannabinoids: still an open issue? Clin Ther. 2018;40(9):1457-1466.
28. Ammann J, McLaren JM, Gerostamoulos D, Beyer J. Detection and quantification of new designer drugs in human blood: Part 1 — Synthetic cannabinoids. J Anal Toxicol. 2012;36(6):372-380.
29. Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act 2012 S.3190 12th Congress.
30. Romero J, Lastres-Becker I, de Miguel R, Berrendero F, Ramos JA, Fernández-Ruiz J. The endogenous cannabinoid system and the basal ganglia. Biochemical, pharmacological, and therapeutic aspects. Pharmacol Ther. 2002;95(2):137-152.
31. Howlett AC, Abood ME. CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology. Adv Pharmacol. 2017;80:169-206.
32. Lu HC, Mackie K. An introduction to the endogenous cannabinoid system. Biol Psychiatry. 2016;79(7):516-525.
33. Chanda D, Neumann D, Glatz JFC. The endocannabinoid system: Overview of an emerging multifaceted therapeutic target. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2019;140:51-56.
34. Hebert-Chatelain E, Marsicano G, Desprez T. Cannabinoids and mitochondria. In: Melis M, ed. Endocannabinoids and Lipid Mediators in Brain Functions. Springer; 2017:211-235.
35. Ligresti A, De Petrocellis L, Di Marzo V. From phytocannabinoids to cannabinoid receptors and endocannabinoids: pleiotropic physiological and pathological roles through complex pharmacology. Physiol Rev. 2016;96(4):1593-1659.
36. Geppetti P, Veldhuis NA, Lieu TM, Bunnett NW. G protein-coupled receptors: dynamic machines for signaling pain and itch. Neuron. 2015;88(4):635-649.
37. Panlilio LV, Goldberg SR, Justinova Z. Cannabinoid abuse and addiction: Clinical and preclinical findings. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2015;97(6):616-627.
38. Slivicki RA, Xu Z, Kulkarni P, et al. Positive allosteric modulation of cannabinoid receptor type 1 suppresses pathological pain without producing tolerance or dependence. Biol Psychiatry. 2018;84(10):722-733.
39. Bushlin I, Gupta A, Stockton SD Jr, Miller LK, Devi LA. Dimerization with cannabinoid receptors allosterically modulates delta opioid receptor activity during neuropathic pain. PLoS One. 2012;7(12):e49789.
40. Morales P, Reggio PH. An update on non-CB(1), non-CB(2) cannabinoid related G-protein-coupled receptors. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2017;2(1):265-273.
41. Fisar Z. Phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2009;2(1):51-75.
42. Hillard CJ. Circulating endocannabinoids: from whence do they come and where are they going? Neuropsychopharmacology. 2018;43(1):155-172.
43. Di Marzo V, De Petrocellis L. Why do cannabinoid receptors have more than one endogenous ligand? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2012;367(1607):3216-3228.
44. Bellocchio L, Cervino C, Pasquali R, Pagotto U. The endocannabinoid system and energy metabolism. J Neuroendocrinol. 2008;20(6):850-857.
45. Rosenberg EC, Patra PH, Whalley BJ. Therapeutic effects of cannabinoids in animal models of seizures, epilepsy, epileptogenesis, and epilepsy-related neuroprotection. Epilepsy Behav. 2017;70(pt B):319-327.
46. Donvito G, Nass SR, Wilkerson JL, et al. The endogenous cannabinoid system: a budding source of targets for treating inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2018;43(1):52-79.
47. Witkamp R. Fatty acids, endocannabinoids and inflammation. Eur J Pharmacol. 2016;785:96-107.
48. Moreno E, Cavic M, Krivokuca A, Casadó V, Canela E. The endocannabinoid system as a target in cancer diseases: Are we there yet? Front Pharmacol. 2019;10:339.
49. Zou S, Kumar U. Cannabinoid receptors and the endocannabinoid system: signaling and function in the central nervous system. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(3).
50. Sierra S, Luquin N, Navarro-Otano J. The endocannabinoid system in cardiovascular function: novel insights and clinical implications. Clin Auton Res. 2018;28(1):35-52.
51. DiPatrizio NV. Endocannabinoids in the gut. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2016;1(1):67-77.
52. Sharkey KA, Wiley JW. The role of the endocannabinoid system in the brain-gut axis. Gastroenterology. 2016;151(2):252-266.
53. Acharya N, Penukonda S, Shcheglova T, Hagymasi AT, Basu S, Srivastava PK. Endocannabinoid system acts as a regulator of immune homeostasis in the gut. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2017;114(19):5005.
54. Río CD, Millán E, García V, Appendino G, DeMesa J, Muñoz E. The endocannabinoid system of the skin. A potential approach for the treatment of skin disorders. Biochem Pharmacol. 2018;157:122-133.
55. Hedlund P. Cannabinoids and the endocannabinoid system in lower urinary tract function and dysfunction. Neurourol Urodyn. 2014;33(1):46-53.
56. Watkins BA, Hutchins H, Li Y, Seifert MF. The endocannabinoid signaling system: a marriage of PUFA and musculoskeletal health. J Nutr Biochem. 2010;21(12):1141-1152.
57. Walker OLS, Holloway AC, Raha S. The role of the endocannabinoid system in female reproductive tissues. J Ovarian Res. 2019;12(1):3.
58. Nielsen JE, Rolland AD, Rajpert-De Meyts E. Characterisation and localisation of the endocannabinoid system components in the adult human testis. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):12866.
59. Thomas A, Baillie GL, Phillips AM, Razdan RK, Ross RA, Pertwee RG. Cannabidiol displays unexpectedly high potency as an antagonist of CB1 and CB2 receptor agonists in vitro. Br J Pharmacol. 2007;150(5):613-623.
60. Mechoulam R, Parker LA, Gallily R. Cannabidiol: an overview of some pharmacological aspects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2002;42(S1):11s-19s.
61. Shinjyo N, Di Marzo V. The effect of cannabichromene on adult neural stem/progenitor cells. Neurochem Int. 2013;63(5):432-437.
62. Izzo AA, Capasso R, Aviello G, et al. Inhibitory effect of cannabichromene, a major non-psychotropic cannabinoid extracted from Cannabis sativa, on inflammation-induced hypermotility in mice. Br J Pharmacol. 2012;166(4):1444-1460.
63. Marinol [package insert]. AbbVie Inc, North Chicago; 2017.
64. Epidiolex [package insert]. Greenwich Sciences, Carlsbad, CA; 2018.
65. Huestis MA. Human cannabinoid pharmacokinetics. Chem Biodivers. 2007;4(8):1770-1804.
66. Stout SM, Cimino NM. Exogenous cannabinoids as substrates, inhibitors, and inducers of human drug metabolizing enzymes: a systematic review. Drug Metabolism Reviews. 2013;46(1):86-95.
67. Geffrey AL, Pollack SF, Bruno PL, Thiele EA. Drug-drug interaction between clobazam and cannabidiol in children with refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2015;56(8):1246-1251.
68. Taylor L, Gidal B, Blakey G, Tayo B, Morrison G. A phase I, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, single ascending dose, multiple dose, and food effect trial of the safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of highly purified cannabidiol in healthy subjects. CNS Drugs. 2018;32(11):1053-1067.
69. Martin BR, Dewey WL, Harris LS, Beckner JS. 3H-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol tissue and subcellular distribution in the central nervous system and tissue distribution in peripheral organs of tolerant and nontolerant dogs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1976;196(1):128-144.
70. Dall'Aglio C, Mercati F, Pascucci L, Boiti C, Pedini V, Ceccarelli P. Immunohistochemical localization of CB1 receptor in canine salivary glands. Vet Res Commun. 2010;34(suppl 1):S9-12.
71. Herkenham M, Lynn AB, Little MD, et al. Cannabinoid receptor localization in brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990;87(5):1932-1936.
72. Freundt-Revilla J, Kegler K, Baumgärtner W, Tipold A. Spatial distribution of cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) in normal canine central and peripheral nervous system. PLoS One. 2017;12(7):e0181064.
73. Campora L, Miragliotta V, Ricci E, Cristino L. Cannabinoid receptor type 1 and 2 expression in the skin of healthy dogs and dogs with atopic dermatitis. Am J Vet Res. 2012;73(7):988-995.
74. Ndong C, O'Donnell D, Ahmad S, Groblewski T. Cloning and pharmacological characterization of the dog cannabinoid CB(2) receptor. Eur J Pharmacol. 2011;669(1-3):24-31.
75. Freundt-Revilla J, Heinrich F, Zoerner A, et al. The endocannabinoid system in canine steroid-responsive meningitis-arteritis and intraspinal spirocercosis. PLoS One. 2018;13(2):e0187197.
76. Dewey WL, Jenkins J, O'Rourke T, et al. The effects of chronic administration of trans-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on behavior and the cardiovascular system of dogs. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther. 1972;198(1):118-131.
77. KaymakÇalan S, Türker RK, Türker MN. Analgesic effect of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the dog. Psychopharmacologia. 1974;35(2):123-128.
78. Garrett ER. Pharmacokinetics and disposition of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites. In: Nahas GG, Paton WDM, eds. Marihuana Biological Effects. Pergamon; 1979:105-121.
79. Garrett ER, Hunt CA. Pharmacokinetics of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in dogs. J Pharm Sci. 1977;66(3):395-407.
80. Meola SD, Tearney CC, Sharlee AH, Hackett TB, Mazzaferro EM. Evaluation of trends in marijuana toxicosis in dogs living in a state with legalized medical marijuana: 125 dogs (2005-2010). J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2012;22(6):690-696.
81. Donaldson CW. Marijuana exposure in animals. Vet Med. 2002;6:437-439.
82. Janczyk P, Donaldson CW, Gwaltney S. Two hundred and thirteen cases of marijuana toxicosis in dogs. Vet Human Toxicol. 2004;46(1):19-21.
83. Fitzgerald KT, Bronstein AC, Newuist KL. Marijuana poisoning. Top Companion Anim Med. 2013;28:8-12.
84. Agnieszka J, Zawadzki M, Szpot P, Niedzwiedz A. Marijuana intoxication in a cat. Acta Vet Scand. 2018;60(44).
85. Williams K, Wells RJ, McLean MK. Suspected synthetic cannabinoid toxicosis in a dog. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2015;25:739-744.
86. Gugelmann H, Gerona R, Li C, et al. "Crazy Monkey" poisons man and dog: human and canine seizures due to PB-22, a novel synthetic cannabinoid. Clin Toxicol. 2014;52:93-98.
87. George JA, Driggers BJ, Cruz-Espindola C, Hargis CL, Harmon RR, Boothe DM. Variability in plasma cannabidiol concentrations in dogs receiving CBD-containing products. Presented at the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine Forum, 2020.
88. Vaughn D, Kulpa J, Paulionis L. Preliminary investigation of the safety of escalating cannabinoid doses in healthy dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:51.
89. McGrath S, Bartner LR, Rao S, Kogan LR, Hellyer PW. A report of adverse effects associated with the administration of cannabidiol in healthy dogs. J Amer Hol Vet Med Assoc. 2018;52:34-38.
90. Boothe DM, Warner CG, Gillette R, Strunck R, Hargis C, Cruz-Espindola C. The disposition of cannabidiol in dogs after a single dose oral administration. Auburn University Phi Zeta Honors Society Poster.
91. Deabold KA, Schwark WS, Wolf L, Wakshlag JJ. Single-dose pharmacokinetics and preliminary safety assessment with use of CBD-rich hemp nutraceutical in healthy dogs and cats. Animals (Basel). 2019;9(10):832.
92. Bartner LR, McGrath S, Rao S, Hyatt LK, Wittenburg LA. Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol administered by 3 delivery methods at 2 different dosages to healthy dogs. Can J Vet Res. 2018;82(3):178-183.
93. Wakshlag JJ, Schwark WS, Deabold KA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol, cannabidiolic acid, delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and related metabolites in canine serum after dosing with three oral forms of hemp extract. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:505.
94. Hannon MB, Deabold KA, Talsma BN, et al. Serum cannabidiol, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and their native acid derivatives after transdermal application of a low THC Cannabis sativa extract in beagles. J Vet Pharm Ther. 2020;43(5):508-511.
95. FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Application No. 210365Orig1s000. Non-clinical review(s). Accessed January 31, 2024. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2018/210365Orig1s000PharmR.pdf
96. Corsato Alvarenga I, Wilson KM, McGrath S. Tolerability of long-term cannabidiol supplementation to healthy adult dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2024;38(1):326-335.
97. Bradley S, Young S, Bakke AM, et al. Long-term daily feeding of cannabidiol is well-tolerated by healthy dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2022;9:977457.
98. Jost HE, Spitznagel K, Alvarenga IC, Peraza J, Banks K, McGrath S, de Linde Henriksen M. Long-term effect of oral cannabidiol administration to healthy adult dogs on tear production, intraocular pressure, and tear concentrations. Vet Ophthalmol. 2024;27(4):357-366.
99. Mills T, Myers S, Hughes D, Wakshlag J. Tolerability of 2 and 4 mg/kg dosing every 12 hour of a cannabidiol- and cannabidiolic acid-rich hemp extract on mixed-breed dogs utilized for teaching in a closed colony. Animals (Basel). 2024;14(13):1863.
100. Tittle DJ, Wakshlag JJ, Schwark WS, Lyubimov A, Zakharov A, Gomez B. Twenty-four hour and one-week steady state pharmacokinetics of cannabinoids in two formulations of cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid rich hemp in dogs. Med Res Arch. 2022;10(7).
101. Gamble LJ, Boesch JM, Frye CW, et al. Pharmacokinetics, safety, and clinical efficacy of cannabidiol treatment in osteoarthritic dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2018;5:165.
102. Kogan L, Hellyer PW, Downing RD. The use of cannabidiol rich hemp oil extract to treat canine osteoarthritis related pain: A pilot study. J Amer Hol Vet Med Assoc. 2020;58:35-45.
103. Verrico CD, Wesson S, Konduri V, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of daily cannabidiol for the treatment of canine osteoarthritis pain. Pain. 2020;161(90):2191-2202.
104. Brioschi FA, Di Cesare F, Gioeni D, et al. Oral transmucosal cannabidiol oil formulation as part of a multimodal analgesic regimen: effects on pain relief and quality of life improvement in dogs affected by spontaneous osteoarthritis. Animals (Basel). 2020;10(9):1505.
105. Klatzkow S, Davis G, Shmalberg J, et al. Evaluation of the efficacy of a cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid rich hemp extract for pain in dogs following a tibial plateau leveling osteotomy. Front Vet Sci. 2023;9:1036056.
106. Mejia S, Duerr FM, Griffenhagen G, McGrath S. Evaluation of the effect of cannabidiol on naturally occurring osteoarthritis-associated pain: a pilot study in dogs. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2021;57(2):81-90.
107. Talsma B, Elam LH, McGrath S, Zhou T, Webb CB, Duerr FM. Evaluation of the effect of cannabidiol administration with and without nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in dogs with mobility disorders: a prospective, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled study. Front Vet Sci. 2024;11:1449343.
108. Casas-Alvarado A, Martínez-Burnes J, Hernández-Ávalos I, et al. Assessment of the nociceptive response to the use of cannabidiol alone and in combination with meloxicam through infrared pupillometry in female dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy. Front Vet Sci. 2024;11:1380022.
109. Hasckel Gewehr JL, Enzele ML, et al. Full spectrum cannabidiol-rich extract reduced propofol dosage required for anesthetic induction in dogs — a pilot study. Front Vet Sci. 2024;11:1352314.
110. Vaughn DM, Paulionis LJ, Kulpa JE. Randomized, placebo-controlled, 28-day safety and pharmacokinetics evaluation of repeated oral cannabidiol administration in healthy dogs. Am J Vet Res. 2021;82(5):405-416.
111. Rozental AJ, Weisbeck BG, Corsato Alvarenga I, et al. The efficacy and safety of cannabidiol as adjunct treatment for drug-resistant idiopathic epilepsy in 51 dogs: A double-blinded crossover study. J Vet Intern Med. 2023;37(6):2291-2300.
112. McGrath S, Bartner LR, Rao S, Packer RA, Gustafson DL. Randomized blinded controlled clinical trial to assess the effect of oral cannabidiol administration in addition to conventional antiepileptic treatment on seizure frequency in dogs with intractable idiopathic epilepsy. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2019;254(11):1301-1308.
113. Garcia GA, Kube S, Carrera-Justiz S, Tittle D, Wakshlag JJ. Safety and efficacy of cannabidiol-cannabidiolic acid rich hemp extract in the treatment of refractory epileptic seizures in dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2022;9:939966.
114. Corsetti S, Borruso S, Malandrucco L, et al. Cannabis sativa L. may reduce aggressive behaviour towards humans in shelter dogs. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):2773.
115. Morris EM, Kitts-Morgan SE, Spangler DM, et al. Feeding cannabidiol (CBD)-containing treats did not affect canine daily voluntary activity. Front Vet Sci. 2021;8:645667.
116. Marliani G, Vaccari L, Cavallini D, Montesano CS, Buonaiuto G, Accorsi PA. Assessing the effectiveness of cannabidiol additive supplementation on canine behavior and cortisol levels. Heliyon. 2024;10(10):e31345.
117. Samara E, Bialer M, Harvey DH. Identification of urinary metabolites of cannabidiol in the dog. Drug Metab Dispos. 1990;18(5):571-579.
118. Chicoine A, Illing K, Vuong S, Pinto KR, Alcorn J, Cosford K. Pharmacokinetics and safety evaluation of various oral doses of a novel 1:20 THC:CBD cannabis herbal extract in dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:583404.
119. Morris EM, Kitts-Morgan SE, Spangler DM, McLeod KR, Costa JHC, Harmon DL. The impact of feeding cannabidiol (CBD) containing treats on canine response to a noise-induced fear response test. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:569565.
120. Flint HE, Hunt ABG, Logan DW, King T. Daily dosing of cannabidiol (CBD) demonstrates a positive effect on measures of stress in dogs during repeated exposure to car travel. J Anim Sci. 2024;102:skad414.
121. Masataka N. Possible effects of cannabidiol (CBD) administration on the vocal activity of healthy domestic dogs upon their temporary separation from caregivers. Heliyon. 2024;10(3):e25548.
122. Loewinger M, Wakshlag JJ, Bowden D, Peters-Kennedy J, Rosenberg A. The effect of a mixed cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid based oil on client-owned dogs with atopic dermatitis. Vet Dermatol. 2022;33(4):329-e77.
123. Mogi C, Yoshida M, Kawano K, Fukuyama T, Arai T. Effects of cannabidiol without delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on canine atopic dermatitis: A retrospective assessment of 8 cases. Can Vet J. 2022;63(4):423-426.
124. Corsato Alvarenga I, Gustafson D, Banks K, Wilson K, McGrath S. Cannabidiol plasma determination and pharmacokinetics conducted at beginning, middle and end of long-term supplementation of a broad-spectrum hemp oil to healthy adult dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2023;10:1279926.
125. Limsuwan S, Phonsatta N, Panya A, Asasutjarit R, Tansakul N. Pharmacokinetics behavior of four cannabidiol preparations following single oral administration in dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2024;11:1389810.
126. Polidoro D, Temmerman R, Devreese M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol following intranasal, intrarectal, and oral administration in healthy dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2022;9:899940.
127. Della Rocca G, Paoletti F, Conti MB, et al. Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol following single oral and oral transmucosal administration in dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2023;9:1104152.
128. FDA. Summitt Labs issues voluntary nationwide recall of Kore organic watermelon CBD oil due to high lead results. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/safety/recalls-market-withdrawals-safety-alerts/summitt-labs-issues-voluntary-nationwide-recall-kore-organic-watermelon-cbd-oil-due-high-lead
129. Schroyer S. California issues recalls for 29 marijuana firms caught in Sequoia Labs fallout. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://mjbizdaily.com/california-issues-recalls-29-marijuana-companies-sequoia-labs-fallout
130. Roberts C. Cali's dirty cannabis crisis: popular edibles claimed to be tainted with pesticides. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://hightimes.com/news/calis-dirty-cannabis-crisis-popular-edibles-claimed-to-be-tainted-with-pesticides
131. Schaneman B. Cost of new mandatory marijuana pesticide testing tough to absorb for Colorado's growers. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://mjbizdaily.com/cost-of-new-mandatory-marijuana-pesticide-testing-tough-to-absorb-for-colorados-growers/
132. Environmental Protection Agency. Pesticide products registered for use on hemp. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://19january2021snapshot.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/pesticide-products-registered-use-hemp_.html
133. Leppanen SD, Ebling H, Macherone A. Optimized cannabis microbial testing: combined use of extraction methods and pathogen detection tests using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Cannabis Sci Tech. 2019;2(4).
134. Gauvin DV, Zimmerman ZJ, Yoder J, Tapp R. Marijuana toxicity: heavy metal exposure through state-sponsored access to "la fee verte." Pharmaceut Reg Affairs: Open Access. 2018;7(1).
135. Wang T. Liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LC-ICP-MS). J Liq Chromatogr Rel Tech. 2007;30(5-7):807-831.
136. Filipiak-Szok A, Kurzawa M, Szlyk E. Determination of toxic metals by ICP-MS in Asiatic and European medicinal plants and dietary supplements. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2015;30:54-58.
137. United States Department of Agriculture. Sampling Guidelines for Hemp. Accessed February 1, 2025. https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/SamplingGuidelinesforHemp.pdf
138. ISO. ISO/IEC 17025 — General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories. ISO, 2017.
139. Nie B, Henion J, Wakshlag J. Analysis of veterinary hemp-based oils for product integrity by LC/MS. Cannabis Sci and Tech. 2019;2(3):36-45.
140. Consumer Lab. CBD and Hemp Extracts Supplements Review, 2019. Accessed July 16, 2019. https://www.consumerlab.com/reviews/cbd-oil-hemp-review/cbd-oil/12
141. Vandrey R, Raber JC, Raber ME, et al. Cannabinoid dose and label accuracy in edible medical cannabis products. J Am Med Assoc. 2015;313(24):2491-2493.
142. Smith B. Quantitation of cannabinoids in dried ground hemp by mid-infrared spectroscopy. Cannabis Sci Tech. 2019;2(6):5-6.
143. Steimling J, Kahler T. Liquid chromatography's complementary role to gas chromatograph in cannabis testing. LCGC Suppl. 2018;36(6):36-40.
144. Rigdon A, Sweeney C, King C, Cassidy B, Kowalski J, Dorman F. Method validation for cannabis analytical labs: approaches to addressing unique industry challenges. Cannabis Science Conference, 2017: Portland, OR.
145. Hazekamp A, Fischedick JT. Cannabis — from cultivar to chemovar. Drug Test Anal. 2011;4:660-667.
146. Jones BR, Schultz GA, Eckstein JA, Ackermann BL. Surrogate matrix and surrogate analyte approaches for definitive quantitation of endogenous biomolecules. Bioanalysis. 2012;4(19):2343-2356.
147. Pertwee RG. Handbook of Cannabis. Oxford Press, 2014:1-781.
148. Wedman-St. Louis B. Cannabis: A Clinician's Guide. CRC Press, 2018:288.
149. Mcdonough E. Colorado edibles recalled due to pesticides. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://hightimes.com/edibles/colorado-edibles-recalled-due-to-pesticides
150. Regulations, C.C.O., Bureau Of Cannabis Control Proposed Text Of Regulations, in 16, D.B.O.C. Control, Editor. 2017: California. p. 1-136.
151. New York State Environmental Laboratory Approval Program. Requirements for Laboratory Certification/Certification Manual. Determination of the Plant Growth Regulator Indole-3-butyric Acid and Pesticides in Medical Marijuana using LC-MS/MS. Department of Health, Wadsworth Center, 2018.
152. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update — outbreak of life-threatening coagulopathy associated with synthetic cannabinoids use. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://emergency.cdc.gov/han/han00416.asp
153. Pet Poison Helpline case database. Bloomington, MN: Pet Poison Helpline & SafetyCall International, PLLC; established 2004.
154. Gidal BE. Drug interactions with cannabidiol (CBD): cause for concern? Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/media/128362/download
155. Effect of EPIDIOLEX on other drugs: highlights of prescribing information. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.epidiolex.com/sites/default/files/pdfs/0820/EPX-03645-0820_EPIDIOLEX_(cannabidiol)_USPI.pdf
156. Fernandez AL, Lee JA, Rahilly LJ, et al. The use of intravenous lipid emulsion as an antidote in veterinary toxicology. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2011;21(4):309-320.
157. FDA. Establishment of a domestic hemp production program. Fed Regist. 2021;86:5596. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/01/19/2021-00967/establishment-of-a-domestic-hemp-production-program
158. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938. 21 U.S. Code Section 321-399i.
159. FDA. Cannabis and Cannabis-Derived Compounds: Quality Considerations for Clinical Research; Draft Guidance for Industry; Availability. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/07/22/2020-15907/cannabis-and-cannabis-derived-compounds-quality-considerations-for-clinical-research-draft-guidance
160. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938. 21 U.S. Code Section 321(g).
161. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 21 U.S. Code Section 321(v).
162. FDA. Regulations regarding Intended Uses. Accessed April 3, 2024. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/08/02/2021-15980/regulations-regarding-intended-uses
163. FDA. FDA concludes that existing regulatory frameworks for foods and supplements are not appropriate for cannabidiol, will work with Congress on a new way forward. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-concludes-existing-regulatory-frameworks-foods-and-supplements-are-not-appropriate-cannabidiol
164. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938. 21 U.S. Code Section 801.4.
165. FDA. From an idea to the marketplace: the journey of an animal drug through the approval process. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/idea-marketplace-journey-animal-drug-through-approval-process
166. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 21 U.S. Code Section 514.
167. FDA. FDA warns 15 companies for illegally selling various products containing cannabidiol as agency details safety concerns. Cited July 15, 2020. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-15-companies-illegally-selling-various-products-containing-cannabidiol-agency-details
168. California Veterinary Medical Board Guidelines for Veterinarian Discussion of Cannabis within the Veterinarian-Client-Patient Relationship. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.vmb.ca.gov/forms_pubs/cannabis_guidelines.pdf
169. California AB-1885. Cannabis and cannabis products: animals: veterinary medicine. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=202120220AB1885
170. Nolen SR. Nevada veterinarians can treat patients with certain cannabis products. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.avma.org/javma-news/2021-10-01/nevada-veterinarians-can-treat-patients-certain-cannabis-products
171. Nevada AB533. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.leg.state.nv.us/App/NELIS/REL/80th2019/Bill/7056/Overview
172. Michigan HB 5085 (2019). Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.legislature.mi.gov/mileg.aspx?page=GetObject&objectname=2019-HB-5085
173. Florida Rule Chapter 5E-3. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.flrules.org/gateway/ChapterHome.asp?Chapter=5E-3
174. South Carolina General Bill A14, R23, H3449. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.scstatehouse.gov/sess123_2019-2020/bills/3449.htm
175. Vermont Bill S.58. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://legislature.vermont.gov/Documents/2024/Docs/BILLS/S-0058/S-0058%20As%20Introduced.pdf
176. New Jersey bill A5322. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://legiscan.com/NJ/bill/A5322/2018
177. New York State Assembly Bill A7680A. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.nysenate.gov/legislation/bills/2019/A7680
178. Ohio Senate Bill 57. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.legislature.ohio.gov/legislation/133/sb57
179. New York State Assembly Bill A5172. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.nysenate.gov/legislation/bills/2021/A5172
180. World Health Organization. Expert Committee on Drug Dependence. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.who.int/groups/who-expert-committee-on-drug-dependence
181. United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/commissions/CND/index.html
182. United Nations. Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.unodc.org/pdf/convention_1961_en.pdf
183. United Nations. Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.unodc.org/pdf/convention_1971_en.pdf
184. World Health Organization. News briefing — 40th WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence (ECDD). Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.who.int/news/item/13-09-2018-40th
185. World Health Organization. News briefing — 40th WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence (ECDD). Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.who.int/news/item/13-09-2018-40th-ecdd-news-briefing
186. World Health Organization. Forty-first meeting of the Expert Committee on Drug Dependence. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.who.int/news-room/events/detail/2018/11/12/default-calendar/forty-first-meeting-of-the-expert-committee-on-drug-dependence
187. United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs. WHO recommendations on cannabis and cannabis-related substances. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.unodc.org/documents/commissions/CND/Scheduling_Resource_Material/Cannabis/Recommendations_backdrop.pdf
188. FDA. Biota Biosciences issues voluntary nationwide recall of cannabidiol (CBD) complex, curcumin complex, and cannabidiol + curcumin injectables because they were marketed without FDA approval. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.fda.gov/safety/recalls-market-withdrawals-safety-alerts/biota-biosciences-issues-voluntary-nationwide-recall-cannabidiol-cbd-complex-curcumin-complex-and
189. FDA. FDA, FTC warn six companies for illegally selling copycat food products containing delta-8 THC. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-ftc-warn-six-companies-illegally-selling-copycat-food-products-containing-delta-8-thc
190. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 21 U.S. Code Section 321(f).
191. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 21 U.S. Code Section 321(w).
192. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 21 U.S. Code Section 355.
193. FDA. FDA regulation of cannabis and cannabis-derived products, including cannabidiol (CBD). Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-regulation-cannabis-and-cannabis-derived-products-including-cannabidiol-cbd
194. FDA. FDA responds to three GRAS notices for hemp seed-derived ingredients for use in human food. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.fda.gov/food/cfsan-constituent-updates/fda-responds-three-gras-notices-hemp-seed-derived-ingredients-use-human-food
195. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 21 U.S. Code Sec 321(s).
196. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 21 U.S. Code Sec 571.
197. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 Public Law 103-417. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://ods.od.nih.gov/About/DSHEA_Wording.aspx
198. FDA. Regulating animal foods with drug claims. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.fda.gov/media/69982/download
199. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 21 U.S. Code Section 321(ff)(3)(B).
200. FDA. FDA issues response to three citizen petitions related to CBD and dietary supplements. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/food/cfsan-constituent-updates/fda-issues-response-three-citizen-petitions-related-cbd-and-dietary-supplements
201. FDA. FDA warns companies illegally selling CBD products. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-companies-illegally-selling-cbd-products
202. FDA. FDA warns companies for illegally selling food and beverage products that contain CBD. Accessed February 1, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/food/cfsan-constituent-updates/fda-warns-companies-illegally-selling-food-and-beverage-products-contain-cbd
203. FDA. Compliance & enforcement. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/compliance-enforcement
204. Vermont General Assembly S.58 Act 44 2019 May. Cited July 25, 2020. https://legislature.vermont.gov/bill/status/2020/S.58
205. Nevada Legislature 79th Session SB 344 2017 July. Cited July 25, 2020. https://www.leg.state.nv.us/App/NELIS/REL/79th2017/Bill/5354/Overview
206. Legislative Counsel's Digest, California AB 2215. Cited May 17, 2019. https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180AB2215
207. Ellis KL, Contino EK. Treatment using cannabidiol in a horse with mechanical allodynia. Eq Vet Ed. 2019;1-4.
208. Jones K, Draeger A, Porr S. Murray State University School of Agriculture. Evaluation of CBD supplementation in the horse. Abstract poster presentation. Accessed January 31, 2024. https://digitalcommons.murraystate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3402&context=postersatthecapitol
209. Thomson ACS, McCarrel TM, Zakharov A, et al. Pharmacokinetics and tolerability of single-dose enteral cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid rich hemp in horses (Equus caballus). Front Vet Sci. 2024;11:1356463.
210. Eichler F, Ehrle A, Jensen KC, et al. Behavioral observations, heart rate and heart rate variability in horses following oral administration of a cannabidiol containing paste in three escalating doses. Front Vet Sci. 2023;10:1305868.
211. American Veterinary Medical Association. Cannabis Resource Guide. 2025. https://www.avma.org/sites/default/files/2025-04/aph-cannabis-resources-report-v4-2025.pdf
212. Kogan LR, Schoenfeld-Tacher R, Hellyer PW, Rishniw M. US veterinarians' knowledge, experience, and perception regarding the use of cannabidiol for canine medical conditions. Front Vet Sci. 2019;5:338.
213. Kogan LR, Hellyer PW, Silcox S, Schoenfeld-Tacher R. Canadian dog owners' use and perceptions of cannabis products. Can Vet J. 2019;60(7):749-755.
214. Kogan LR, Hellyer PW, Robinson NG. Consumers' perceptions of hemp products for animals. J Am Holist Vet Med Assoc. 2016;42:40-48.
215. Kogan L, Schoenfeld-Tacher R, Hellyer P, Rishniw M. The use of cannabidiol-rich hemp oil extract to treat canine osteoarthritis-related pain: a pilot study. J Am Holist Vet Med Assoc. 2020;58:35-45.
216. Alvarenga IC, Panickar K, Hess H, McGrath S. Scientific validation of cannabidiol for management of dog and cat diseases. Annu Rev Anim Biosci. 2023;11:227-246.
217. Wakshlag JJ, Cital S, Eaton SJ, Prussin R, Hudalla C. Cannabinoid, terpene, and heavy metal analysis of 29 over-the-counter commercial veterinary hemp supplements. Vet Med (Auckl). 2020;11:45-55.
218. Cital S, Kramer K, Hughston L, Gaynor JS. Cannabis Therapy in Veterinary Medicine: A Complete Guide. Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2021.
219. Hartsel JA, Eades J, Hickory B, Makriyannis A. Cannabis sativa and hemp. In: Gupta RC, ed. Nutraceuticals: Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity. Academic Press/Elsevier; 2016:735-754.
220. Huestis MA, Solimini R, Pichini S, Pacifici R, Carlier J, Busardò FP. Cannabidiol adverse effects and toxicity. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2019;17(10):974-989.
221. Iffland K, Grotenhermen F. An update on safety and side effects of cannabidiol: a review of clinical data and relevant animal studies. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2017;2(1):139-154.
222. Larsen C, Shahinas J. Dosage, efficacy and safety of cannabidiol administration in adults: a systematic review of human trials. J Clin Med Res. 2020;12(3):129-141.
223. VanDolah HJ, Bauer BA, Mauck KF. Clinicians' guide to cannabidiol and hemp oils. Mayo Clin Proc. 2019;94(9):1840-1851.
224. Bruni N, Della Pepa C, Oliaro-Bosso S, Pessione E, Gastaldi D, Dosio F. Cannabinoid delivery systems for pain and inflammation treatment. Molecules. 2018;23(10):2478.

References 1-223 represent the complete citation list from the American Veterinary Medical Association 2025 Cannabis Resource Guide and the peer-reviewed studies cited therein. All URLs were verified as of the access dates noted. For the most current versions of regulatory documents, consult the issuing agency directly.

Continue Learning

Every guide below is built to the same standard as this one — clinical evidence cited, limitations acknowledged, dosing derived from peer-reviewed studies rather than manufacturer recommendations. The canine CBD literature is condition-specific in ways that matter for treatment decisions, and each guide goes deeper on the research relevant to that condition than a general overview can.